Teenage Morality

What is teenage morality? What are the factors that cause teenage morality? Teenage morality is the decrease of moral values of teenagers. These are usually caused by breakdown of families, influence of modern technology and media and also the environment where the teenager belongs. In this research paper, I will discuss that the main reason of less of morality among teenagers is due to breakdown of families. What do you think is the meaning of morality? Morality is the differentiation of actions, intentions or decisions between right or wrong. Thus morality is important to our lives, Morality is first taught at home by our parents when we were still children, but what if are parents are not around? Who will teach us moral values that we needed?. In that case we are having a decrease in the difference between knowing what is right and wrong or good and bad. This is caused by lack of guidance by our parents because of old family structure, marriages become wiped out, not enough time to spend with our families and not going to church. In these days many believed that the weakening of stable marriages is the main reason of moral decline. This is because children learn moral values at their own homes from their parents and thinking that they are the role models. When parents are away from their children, emotionally distant or their parents themselves are immoral then the learning of the moral values of the child is greatly slowed down. -based from http://www. oppapers. com/essays/Moral-DeclIne-In-Society-Is-Due/677931

Cold Blood’ and Frankenstein Essay

Compare how Capote and Shelley use different techniques for characterisation and their use of emotive, figurative language with the use of repition to show the theme of wasted lives ‘In Cold Blood’ was written in 1966 when screenplays were very common. Authors such as Shakespeare wrote traditional plays so it was unpredictable that the readers of ‘In Cold Blood’ would respond to the novel well as it was the first non fiction novel Capote wrote. Capote wanted to experiment with his writing using narrative techniques of the novel to depict real life events. Capote believed that the narrator should not interrupt in novels; but the characters should tell the story themselves. Capote was able to write a novel which displayed the real events surrounding the murder of the Herb Clutter family and shaped it into a storyline. ‘In Cold Blood’ is based on a true story of the murders of a family- something which would be wrote about in today’s society. The novel is an account of the events but also contains elements of Capote’s creativity therefore it is hard to tell whether it is fictional or factual. ‘Frankenstein’ on the other hand is a non fictional novel which is still read and appreciated today as it is of a gothic genre. ‘Frankenstein’ was written in 1818 when science was seen as exciting but also dangerous as it was trespassing on the territory of God. The early 19th century was a time which generated exceptional events and ideas therefore it must have been quite interesting to read ‘Frankenstein’. The danger of science was a great classic theme and Shelley provided her gothic genre as a framework to tone the horror of failed science- the famous experiment gone wrong. ‘Frankenstein’ is still a very popular novel today because of it’s fascination in science which is still explored. Capote portrays his character Bonnie as being a very timid and shy character. She has a ‘heart faced shape’ which is symbolic to her personality and it suggests that she is a likeable character. The significance of this is that it makes the readers engage with her and they want to know her story in order to feel sympathy for her. Bonnie has ‘bony hands’ and is quite petitie which suggests that she is quite vunerable- like the creature in ‘Frankenstein’. In ‘Frankenstein’, we get the creature’s perspective, ‘and what was I? ‘ this is similar to Capote’s character Bonnie with both the characters looking for reassurance from someone. Both the writers make it easy for the reader to discover new aspects of the characters personalities. Capote uses emotive language in repition to suggest that Bonnie may have had a wasted life which makes the readers have sympathy for her. Capote uses the term ‘spinster aunt’ which is a type of semantic change known for an unmarried woman. Even though the novel was written in 1966, the language is still easily read and understood. Unlike ‘In Cold Blood’, ‘Frankenstein’ contains language which may cause a barrier if read today. Shelley uses words like ‘loathsome’ and ‘squalid’ which would rarely be used today however the novel is still effective at portraying the gothic horror through emotive and figurative language. In the extract of the dialogue between Jolene and Bonnie, Capote portrays the significance of the difference between Bonnie and Jolene. Jolene is a very confident character whereas Bonnie constantly panicks and stutters when she speaks; this shows that she may feel worthless and may feel that she is not noticed by others. Capote emphasizes Bonnie’s wasted life indirectly by comparing her to Jolene’s character who comes across as very confident. The comparison of the two characters is quite significant as it shows the importance of emotion that Bonnie has felt. Capote brings a child like quality to Bonnie through the dialogue between Bonnie and Jolene, ‘They don’t need me,’ this shows that Bonnie may be looking for reassurance from Jolene. Capote makes the reader feel sorry for Bonnie in order to like her character as she may have had a bad past. The repition of ‘they don’t need me’ reinforces the sadness of Bonnie. It is also suggesting how she may not be very close to her family. Capote makes us aware of the sadness and timidness of Bonnie for the readers to sympathise with her and hope that she succeeds later in the novel. The insecurities that Capote brings out in his character can resemble the characters of today’s famous novels. Shelley makes the readers realise that even though the creature is deformed, he is still a character who underneath his flaws should be treated the same as any other person. ‘I was not even of the same nature as man’, this shows that Shelley wants the readers to sympathise with the creature and almost feel his emotion. The creature’s life is empty if not more than Bonnies as all he longs for is companionship. Shelley makes the readers feel quite sad for the creature as he is deprived of love. With the use of figurative and emotive language, ‘I saw and heard of none like me’, Shelley introduces feelings to the reader which can only be seen as human. The readers see that the creature is still an outcast even though he has tried helping people and tried being humane. It’s unfortunate for the creature to have an empty life, one which he didn’t really ask for and like the one Bonnie almost wished she didn’t have.

Analysis of Target Market of Woolworths Limited - Free Samples

Explain Of Target Market of Woolworths Limited? Woolworths Limited is of the leading company of the Australia that is also known as Woolworths Supermarkets. The company provides various retail products and services to their customers at the reasonable price as compare to others. In addition to this, it is also important to know that, the company is also use target market strategy to promote and sell their products in the market (Woolworths Limited. 2017). For example, mainly, Woolworths is targets the high income earners customers in the market in order to maximize the level of profit. In addition to this, the company is also targets the people of all the age groups in the Australia those require quality products. Moreover, it is also accessed that, in order to target the customers, the company considers several segmentation characteristics of the customers including demographic, psychographic, geographical, and behavioral factors. Â  For instance, the company considers demographic factors in order to target their customers and s ell the product. As per the demographic characteristics, Woolworths is targeting their customers on the basis of customer’s age, income level, educational level, gender, employment status, saving patterns etc. This strategy is helping the company in targeting a specific class of customers (Pride, Hughes, and Kapoor, 2014) On the other hand, based on the psychographic characteristics, the company Woolworths involves various factors associated with the target customers such as: personality traits, lifestyles, attitudes, expectations, activities, values, opinions, interests, lifestyles. By characterizing these factors about the customers, the company design and provides products in the market in order to satisfy all the needs and wants of their customers in an effective and proper manner. Along with this, it is also found that, Woolworths is also characterized their customers or target market by considering several geographical factors including local, state, regional or national marketplace segment. This method allows the company to effectively and properly provide the products at the right time at the right place. In addition to this, geographical factors are also help the company to reach the customers (Mooij, 2010). At the same time, the behavioral factors are also involved when the company targets its customers from the market. For example, as per this, the company targets the customers on the basis of product usage rates, brand loyalty, user status etc. This is also helping the company to make more profit from the market. On the basis of these characteristics of customers, it can be said that, Woolworths Limited is making and creating their marketing strategies, tactics and methods in order to attain strategic organizational goals and objectives effectively. In the same way, the company is targets their consumers on the basis of these characteristics or factors and offers the products and services based on these factors. Overall, it can be said that, Woolworths Limited is creating products, differentiation, and target market, marketing and other business strategies based on these features or characteristics of the customers that allowed the company to effectively target the customers (Lancaste r, and Massingham, 2010) Lancaster, G. and Massingham, L. (2010). Essentials of Marketing Management. UK: Taylor & Mooij, M.D. (2010). Global Marketing and Advertising: Understanding Cultural Paradoxes. Pride, W., Hughes, R. and Kapoor, J. (2014) Foundations of Business (4th ed.). USA: Cengage Woolworths Limited (2017). About Us. Available At: https://www.woolworthsgroup.com.au/ {Accessed on: 20 May 2017}

UK IT Related Laws Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

UK IT Related Laws - Essay Example Illegally obtained data, records or information about an individual are often used in crimes that involve identity theft. Other usage of data about a person includes blackmail, kidnapping and other crimes. Data Protection Act of 1998 The Data Protection Act of 1998 was in response to the European Directive of 1995 that required member states to protect the right to privacy of every citizen in the European Union. Recognizing the borderless nature of internet transactions, the need for this law to be passed in every state is of outmost importance to ensure that no European will be victimized within the European Union by fellow Europeans engaged in criminal activities. The Data Protection Act was very explicit in limiting the information to be gathered by organizations from an individual to ensure that only what is needed by the organization can be gathered. The Data Protection Act also mandates that the information gathered from an individual or generated for an individual by an establ ishment should not be kept longer than necessary. The provision cited herein has the intention of ensuring that no data or information can be obtained that can be used in stealing and replicating an identity. However, there are instances where problems still occur. In September 2010, Brighton General Hospital was robbed of Hard Drives that contained confidential information of patients of the said hospital. Although, the Chief Executive of Brighton and Sussex University Hospitals NHS Trusts stated that the Hard Drives have been released to a contractor who was paid to destroy the Hard Drives, unfortunately the contractor sold them on E-Bay. As soon as they have been informed of the theft, they were able to catch and recover the hard drives with the help of the local police. The Information Commissioner’s Office stated that the watchdog suggested that the fine of the hospital be 375,000 pounds. The 375,000 pound fine is the biggest fine that the Information Commissionerâ€℠¢s Office has issued. (OUT-LAW.com, 2012) Kent County Council has been named as the number one organization that loses private data of their clients in the United Kingdom. There had been 72 reports of theft between the years 2008 and 2011. One incident was mentioned in the article where a worker lost a USB drive that contained information regarding students somewhere. Most of the Kent County Council’s loss of data incidents includes the loss of laptops, documents that were misplaced or accidentally left outside a car. Another incident mentioned were parents receiving a report of a different child. Although the Kent County Council was not held liable for some incidents which is illustrated in an incident where one family posted case notes pictures on Facebook, making it accessible to anyone. However, it is no big surprise that they came out as Number One with respect to data loss since they are a big authority in the United Kingdom. (BBC, 2011) Zurich Insurance was issued a fi ne of 2,300,000 million pounds by the Financial Service Authority for the data loss incident in August 2008 involving 46,000 of its customers. The data loss occurred when they were transferring data to storage

Costco's Management Style and How the Business Operates Research Paper

Costco's Management Style and How the Business Operates - Research Paper Example This research will begin with the statement that managerial functions refer to a set of practices that can enable the organizations to successfully accomplish their predetermined business targets. The organizations of the present business world tend to highly focus on developing as well as designing effective and well-built managerial functions that can lead them towards sustaining in this competitive financial market. The managerial functions are regarded as the primary factors of an organization that incorporates a major set of practices like planning; organizing, leading as well as controlling that can lead them towards accomplishing their expected business goals. Costco is globally well-known for its extensive operations of retailing broad assortment of products for a different group of customers across the globe. The organization principally involves a membership warehouse facility that is dedicated to providing extensive collection of quality based merchandise to its global cus tomers in a best possible price. Currently, Costco can be observed in more than hundreds of global locations with a wider range of merchandise, convenient specialty departments as well as elite membership services serving a different group of global customers. The managerial functions are regarded as the pivotal factors that significantly direct an organization to accomplish its broad array of business practices. According to the rapid development of the global business environment, the organizations seek to achieve better control of its range of activities to remain competitive.... te an effective set of managerial functions for the purpose of strengthening and developing its operational as well as managerial capabilities through designing effective set of planning, organizing, leading as well as controlling functions (Costco Wholesale Corporation, 2012). This can be better understood with the help of the following pictorial illustration. Source: (Daft & Lane, 2009) In relation to the business operations of Costco, it has been observed that the organization practices an effective set of managerial functions that enable the company to conveniently perform its wide range of activities by a considerable level. Planning Planning can be considered as the initial and major aspect of the managerial functions that perform by a particular organization. The phase highly involves unending course of functions that are set by the top hierarchical members of a specific organization (Lewis, Goodman, Fandt & Michlitsch, 2007). In relation to the present managerial functions of Costco, it can be identified that the top hierarchical members of the organization tends to make effective decisions in order to attain its expected business targets. In this regard, the decisions include setting any predetermined business goal, procedures along with policies and other plans to deliberately provide quality products or services to its potential customers. Moreover, the planning functions of the Costco also incorporate developing functional strategies and effective action plans that facilitates the organization to attract the customers by a greater extent (Costco Wholesale Corporation, 2011). In addition, the planning function of the organization also engages different marketing and promotional functions concerning warehouse opening, direct mailing to the new members along

Police Officers and Degrees Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Police Officers and Degrees - Essay Example Obtaining tangible evidence is essential to officers since they use it to identify potential suspects (Dempsey & Linda, 2011). However, in order to become a competent police officer, one bear in mind that he or she needs to have both educational and physical requirements that meet the standards of law enforcement officers. In addition to that, a police must complete the police academic training program set by the country. This paper will seek to discuss whether police officers should have degrees or not. The US Bureau of Labor Statistics sets forth that, before anyone becomes a police officer, he or she must posses the minimum education qualifications. In most cases, it usually lies in a school diploma or any other academic qualification equivalent to a school diploma (Siegel & Welsh, 2011). Nowadays, most police agencies require their officers to have at least a college level qualification. This means that things are changing and the police force is no longer the way it was decades ago. Analysts set out that, police officers who possess college level degrees are good at setting in place strategies suitable for curbing crime activities in their area (Fred, 2008). They are able to improvise the activities and performance of an agency by ensuring advent security through set policies and procedures (Cole, Smith, & Christina, 2012). With reference to this spectrum, it is important for a police officer to have a degree, as this would aid in meeting the set security targets. Fact-findings make it clear that, interrogation or questioning a suspect requires more than just techniques that an officer learns when he or she joins the police-training academy. In fact, officers responsible for interrogation sessions have more than just a college diploma. As time went by, requirements stated that police needs to have a higher knowledge about behavior and cognition in order to be in a position to interrogate a suspect (Fred, 2008). This fact shows that for the police to be abl e to deliver the relevant security efforts, they must acquire degrees since going through all that training gives one the power of knowledge and techniques sufficient to carry police tasks with adequacy. A degree for a police officer is imperative since education and skills are the best weapons for guiding and guarding whereby law enforcement officers act as both. In order to deliver adequately, officers need to have the skills and academic prowess that comes along with degree acquisition (Dempsey & Linda, 2011). Having a degree aids in advancing ranks. Apart from the law enforcement docket, most ministries consider educational background before promoting an employee to a higher level. Therefore, if police officers could learn to an extent that they all have degrees, it means that people working as law enforcement agents would not only be learned, but also competent. For instance, in areas where obtaining evidence requires use of mind or nerve or pulse reading machines, intense know ledge is crucial. As such, it is important for a police officer conducting such sessions to have a cognitive knowledge in that area (Siegel & Welsh, 2011). To enhance measures of maintaining civilian security, officers should have at least college degrees (More & Miller, 2010). Those officers dealing with police science or criminal justice should a degree in law enforcement policies, evidence gathering, constitutional rights, and criminology. Agreeably, being conversant with all these topics

Has no topic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 2

Has no topic - Essay Example The major texts are a record of letters between two fan bearers of the king. Fan bearers were names given to those who had a close relationship with the king. The papyrus major texts also mention agriculture in the paranoiac lands during the reign of Ramesses three in his 16th year. The small texts talk about a shipment arrival containing commodities. The texts also mention quarrying activities going on for the construction of a tomb. Ancient Egyptians had developed a form of written language and they needed another medium to write on other than the stone. This led to the discovery and use of papyrus which was growing in the banks of river Nile. The reed was thin, strong, and easy to carry and for years, it was used for writing. It was a costly material and once used it was retained for extra use as a scratch paper. The recycled papyrus was also used to wrap bodies of the deceased. The body was first wrapped with linen then it was covered with the recycled papyrus. These wrapping mat erials were made of layers of papyrus discarded by the administrative authority. Papyrus reeds were also used to make furniture such as chairs, mats, baskets, boats and ropes. The roots of the plant were a source of medicine, perfume, and food (Snedden, 76). The standard measurement for papyrus paper was 45cm by 22cm and for purposes of longer documents; papyrus papers were joined to form a scroll. There were different kinds and quality of the papyrus reeds, the lowest quality was used by merchants to wrap commodities and the highest quality papyrus was used by the religious leaders and kings. The texts written on the papyrus varied, ranging from religious texts, musicals, literature, biblical literature, but the largest number of papyrus documents was on administrative issues. These official matters included tax receipts, court documents, and letters between leaders. The quality of the papyrus depended on some factors such as age of harvesting the location of growing, and type of p ith used. The best quality papyrus was made using inner pith. Normal rolls were made using different qualities of papyrus, inner section had the lowest quality papyrus, and the ends which were prone to tear had the finest quality of papyrus sheets. The varieties of the papyrus were named in the honor of different leaders or emperors. This information was contained in the first papyrus called protocol. For ordinary use, this had to be cut but for official use, it was against the rules (Snedden, 87). The painting of the final judgment is one of the paintings on Egyptian religion that relate to the papyrus. This is attributed to the fact that these painting is usually done on a piece of papyrus paper. This iconic papyrus painting reflects the symbols adopted by ancient Egyptians in their religion. The earliest judgment day painting was first drawn in the 16th dynasty. This art depicts that the Egyptians believed in immortality. It was expressed by painting what the day would be like wa s done in their papyrus papers. The judgment of the dead emanated from the believe that deeds done by people would be subjected to scrutiny and analysis by divine powers after one died (Adam, 59). Conclusively Egyptian art is characterized by order and aesthetic quality that is why it continuous to be relevant to the Western Art. It is a foundation in telling the history of the Western Art being one of the oldest civilization which shaped cultures adopted by Europe, Asia and Africa. Glass

INTRODUCTION TO HUMANITIES Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

INTRODUCTION TO HUMANITIES - Essay Example The ancient Egyptians believed that real life began after the death of the body. It is for this purpose that so much deliberation and concern went into organizing the places where bodies would be brought to rest at the moment of death. The rich had the walls of their tombs carved exquisitely, and rich foods and jewels as well, were left there along with the body. The walls of the tombs also depicted Egyptian gods leading the person’s soul through judgment, and finally to his allotted area. Poor Egyptians were buried in the sand, but also made efforts to ensure that their bodies would first be mummified. (Bishop, 1999) The preservation of the body was very important to ancient Egyptians. They believed that a soul would need it in the next life and so took measures to ensure its maintenance. Mummification, an embalming process that took 70 days, was done to dry the body. Large amounts of natron were also employed to hasten the drying process. Canopy jars were then utilized to hold the mummified remains of the body parts that had been removed. The early Minoans in northern and eastern Crete were also seemingly preoccupied with the dead. They carved out in caves, elaborate house tombs for their dead, a norm that suggests that they considered that the deceased person would go on with a new life in death and that he would need his house (Bishop, 1999). Even in ancient China, the populace believed that the soul of a dead person continued to exist in another form once it left the body. It was deemed that it would require everything it possessed in earthly life to be comfortable. The ancient Chinese slaughtered the livestock and actual family of the deceased so that they could accompany him in his new existence. This was a practice observed by many ancient cultures inclusive of the Egyptians (Bishop, 1999). Today’s death practices in various parts of the world involve morticians

Western Civilization of the French Revolution Essay

Western Civilization of the French Revolution - Essay Example It essentially detailed his life, including capture, slavery, brutality, and eventual literacy. It was created in the United Kingdom. It is useful to historians because it provides a first-hand account of slavery, something that is relatively hard to come by, as so few were literate. The French Revolution was one of the most turbulent times in western history – it involved mass uprisings, huge reversals in power and wealth, and had one of the strangest endings: the rise of Napoleon. The development of one of the world’s most famous late emperors is a strange ending to a democratic revolution. Some argue that Napoleon largely upheld revolutionary values during his reign – and indeed there are some ways this was true, such as installing a civil code of laws to replace the whims of rulers, aristocrats and so forth and would eventually be a major influence in many countries around the world. However, this and similar achievements cannot overshadow the fact that the fundamentals of the revolution were populist, and an emperorship is anything but. If the spirit of the revolution was enshrined in the phrase â€Å"Libertà ©, Égalità ©, Fraternità ©,† then it is clear Napoleon did not live up to those standards. As mentioned previously, it is tempting to argue that Napoleon upheld many aspects of the revolution. Certainly his reign was nothing like as terrible to the French populace as that of the monarchs that proceeded the revolution: the economy was largely stabilized, wealth was less concentrated in the hands of the wealthy than previously and so forth. His Civil Code embodied many of the features present in the declaration of the rights of man,1 especially in imagining the rule of law as the prime mechanism of power, replacing the absolute control held by previous monarchs. While these achievements should be

Development of a Multimedia Application Literature review

Development of a Multimedia Application - Literature review Example Thus, while making the selection or incorporating media to their web pages, web designers should think about the basic theme and nature of our materials. Moreover, web designers should incorporate animations, images, video, or sound into the web pages simply when they match with web site’s message (Lynch & Horton, 2004), (Martinez et al., 1998) and (Rahman 2002, p.232). Furthermore, web designers should also keep in mind that there are also several technical restrictions to the deliverance of audiovisual content through the web. For instance, large-size videos and videos demanding flat movement or understandable information would need huge amount of bandwidth to be transmitted from one computer to another as well as can charge the playback capability of the user's computer. In this scenario, web designers can utilize the techniques of down-sampling and data compression to produce a file that is of minimum size and small enough to be transported through the web. However, in man y scenarios, this compromised data and information can be too important to demand more effort. In addition, when web designers are deciding to incorporate multimedia to the web pages, they must confirm that the technology is able to convene the requirements of web content. Moreover, web designers should make sure that the users spend minimum time and energy in downloading files that would be the best use of the technology (Lynch & Horton, 2004), (Martinez et al., 1998) and (Rahman, 2002, p.232). Web Design Web design is the process of planning and developing the websites. This process consist of various elements such as data and information structure, site structure, user... This essay approves that at the present MUDPY methodology is applied for the semantic web by building ontology for it. MUDPY ontology is considered as a theme designed for the domain of multimedia planning and design. Additionally, it outlines the ideas which exist in this domain along with their features and associations among them. In addition, this ontology directs the system developers throughout design and planning stages of a project in a systematic style by permitting them to produce a project proposal, make out the practical system development requirements, formulate a decision on the navigational structure and produce a storyboard intended for the project. Moreover, multimedia project developers are able to make use of MUDPY ontology to map out and design their projects; as a result they can produce high-quality projects This report makes a conclusion that at the present, innovative user interfaces holding different kinds of media categories are utilized for different purposes, for example in training or simulation software as well as in various other types of applications. Web design is the process of planning and developing the websites. This process consist of various elements such as data and information structure, site structure, user interface, web layout, navigation, fonts, colors and pictures. Multimedia Design and Planning Pyramid model is a meta-design structure that helps web developers in development of multimedia projects. Additionally, the MUDPY model is established on the semantic web by formulating ontology for it. This literature review has presented a detailed overview of website design, Multimedia technology and MUDPY methodology. This paper has shown MUDPY methodology is helpful for the designers in designing an effective web site.

The Experience of Ethnic Minority Workers Essay Example for Free

The Experience of Ethnic Minority Workers Essay Working conditions in hotels and restaurants †¢ Cash-in-hand, undeclared or under-declared, and illegal working was found among the ethnic minority and migrant restaurant workers interviewed, and affected both employment conditions and rates of pay. This was prevalent in small, ethnic minority-owned restaurants, usually employing members of the same ethnic group. The National Minimum Wage (NMW) was the rate commonly paid to basic grade staff, including bar and restaurant staff, hotel porters and housekeeping staff, particularly outside of London. The research also found a high incidence of flat rate payments per shift or per week, regardless of hours worked, below the NMW, often paid cash-in-hand. Long hours working was a further feature. Full-time workers did a minimum 40-hour week, with 50 to 60 hours a week being common, particularly in restaurants. Late night working, or until the last customer left, was often expected without extra pay. Some felt that they had no life outside work due to the long hours demanded by the job. In some instances, individuals had several jobs to earn money to support family or send back home. There was low awareness of holiday and leave entitlements. Very few workers received more than the statutory entitlement to four weeks’ holiday. Some reported getting no paid holidays or receiving less than the legal minimum, and there was generally low awareness of holiday entitlement. In small restaurants there was sometimes an informal policy of two weeks’ leave. It was common for workers to have received no written statements of particulars or contracts. This was found among both informally and legitimately employed workers, and was a source of anxiety for several. †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ 1 †¢ There were poor perceptions of job security in the sector. Few workers felt secure in their employment, often feeling they could be sacked on the spot, particularly those working informally. Some longer-term workers in regular employment were aware that increasing use of casual and agency staff meant that their jobs were not secure. Training available to migrant workers, particularly in restaurants, was minimal, usually only in basic health and safety, hygiene or fire procedures. In some hotels, however, managers had recognised the neglect of training in the past and were offering staff the chance to pursue National Vocational Qualifications. †¢ Problems at work †¢ There was a high degree of acceptance of the poor working conditions in the sector among interviewees, with issues such as low pay, long hours, unpaid overtime and poor health and safety standards often not perceived as particular â€Å"problems† but rather viewed as the nature of work in the sector. Where problems were identified these related to: pay; long working hours; workload; getting time off; bullying and verbal abuse, including racial harassment; problems getting on with colleagues; English language skills; and theft of property from work. Bullying and verbal abuse was common, particularly in kitchens where chefs were often known as bullies, but this was accepted by some as â€Å"just the mentality of the kitchen†. Sometimes the abuse had a racial element, with â€Å"bloody foreigner† used as a term of abuse. Racist abuse from restaurant customers was also regularly suffered by some waiters. In one hotel, several staff had experienced bullying from a manager, resulting in time off sick with stress. Staff believed there was an ulterior motive of trying to get rid of long-serving employees and replacing them with cheaper casual staff. Opportunities for promotion were felt by several interviewees to be inhibited by discrimination on grounds of race, ethnicity, nationality or age, as well as the limitations imposed by work permit or visa rules. Some long-term workers felt they had been overlooked for promotion, with their age then compounding the problem as employers looked for younger staff to promote and develop. Where employees saw that they had opportunities to progress, this was due to the support of a manager. Opportunities were further limited by employer presumptions about the suitability of staff for â€Å"front-of-house† jobs, such as reception or waiter positions, based on ethnicity, gender and age. Some employers expressed preferences for white staff, or a â€Å"balance† of white and non-white front-of ­ house staff, on the grounds that it was what their customers wanted. The research found that such racial stereotyping was expressed openly in this sector in a way that may not be acceptable in other sectors. †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ 2  . In the main, interviewees did not raise health and safety concerns when discussing problems at work, reflecting an acceptance of the hazards of this type of work. However many issues did arise during the course of interviews, which included: burns and working in hot kitchens; working in a confined space; back and shoulder pains; and tiredness from long working hours and heavy workload. Often, responsibility for health and safety, such as avoiding burns, was seen as primarily belonging to the employee and not the employer. Most workers believed that little could be done to tackle the problems that they were having at work, or felt that the only solution was to leave the job. A handful of workers had taken action to resolve their problems at work, either by raising concerns with their manager, or seeking outside support or advice. †¢ Support, advice and awareness of rights †¢ Workers felt poorly informed about employment rights in the UK, and had little idea of where to get information if they needed it. Many also were unsure about aspects of their own particular terms and conditions of employment, which was related to a lack of written information. As might be expected, those who had been in the UK for a longer time, and the small number who were members of a trade union, felt better informed about their rights at work. Trade unions had been a valuable source of support for a small number of interviewees, but for most workers, unions simply did not feature in their experience of work. But despite the difficulties of organising in the sector, including high staff turnover, no culture of trade unionism and employers that are hostile to trade unions, union membership was growing in one London hotel and catering branch. This was the result of recruitment campaigns that included information in several languages. Some interviewees either had, or would, seek support from community organisations about problems at work. However, there was a variation in the level of community support available in the three regions, with London and the West Midlands having established organisations representing a variety of ethnic groups, but such structures were much less well developed in the South West. Seeking support and advice through community organisations can also be a double-edged sword for those who work for employers within the same ethnic community, with some fearing that if they sought advice, word would get around and they would have problems getting work in future. Of the small number of workers who had sought support for problems at work, Citizen’s Advice, Acas and a specific project for service workers (no longer in existence) had been used. While a small number were aware of Citizen’s Advice, a couple thought that the service excluded them because of its name, which implied to them that it was for British citizens only. †¢ †¢ †¢ 3 Conclusions and recommendations †¢ While many of the working conditions and problems highlighted in this report are common to workers in the sector, the research found several features that serve to differentiate the experience of ethnic minority and migrant workers: immigration status; working in the informal sector; discrimination in the labour market and employment; and low expectations which increase tolerance of poor working conditions. For ethnic minority and migrant workers the difficulties in raising and resolving problems relate both to their own individual vulnerability and characteristics of work in the sector. Recent migrant workers may have limited English language skills and little or no knowledge of UK employment rights and support structures, factors that compound the difficulties of addressing problems in the sector. These include: the perception that there is a ready supply of labour to replace workers who complain; a lack of union organisation; a culture of poor personnel practice, such as minimal training and provision of information; and the informal nature of much employment obtained by ethnic minority and migrant workers in the sector. There appeared also to be a lack of monitoring or enforcement of employers’ compliance with employment legislation in this sector. To understand the different experiences and motivations for ethnic minority and migrant workers working in hotels and restaurants, the research developed a typology of strategies that highlights at one end how some individuals feel they are acting strategically in relation to their work choices, whereas at the other, economic factors and limitations play a greater role in determining their choices. The strategies move from Career progression through Broadening opportunities and Stepping stone to Pragmatic acceptance and No alternative. The research makes a number of recommendations about how the position of this vulnerable group of workers can be improved through better access to employment rights and information, improvements in working conditions and career opportunities, and improved provision of support and advice. †¢ †¢ †¢ 4 1. INTRODUCTION This project, The Experience of Ethnic Minority Workers in the Hotel and Catering Industry: Routes to Support and Advice on Workplace Problems, was funded by the European Social Fund and Acas and carried out by the Working Lives Research Institute, London Metropolitan University between May 2004 and July 2006. The project used qualitative research methods to explore the experiences and problems at work of ethnic minority and migrant workers in hotels and restaurants, with the aim of both identifying the range of experiences and problems encountered, and gaining a greater understanding of access to and use of support and advice to resolve these problems. The research therefore provides evidence of the conditions faced by ethnic minority and migrant workers, which is an area relatively neglected by research so far. Its objective is to inform policy in order to improve good practice in relation to the employment of ethnic minority and migrant workers, to prevent problems from arising, and to improve the support and advice mechanisms available. The key target groups for these research findings and policy objectives are thus employers, statutory bodies, the voluntary sector, trade unions and community groups. 1. 1 Background to the project At the start of the project a working paper (Wright and Pollert, 2005) was prepared to establish the extent of ethnic minority and migrant working in the hotel and restaurant sector, as well as pinpointing the main issues for workers in the sector identified by the existing literature. The working paper is available on the project website1. The paper showed that ethnic minority and migrant workers make up a significant part of the hotel and restaurant workforce – almost threefifths (59%) of workers in the sector in London described themselves as other than. White British in the 2001 census (Wright and Pollert, 2005: 27). Outside of London the picture reflects the differences in the concentration of the ethnic minority population across the UK. In the West Midlands, where 84% of the hotel and restaurant workforce were White British in 2001, the largest other groups were White other (2. 9%), Bangladeshi (2. 3%) and Indian (2. 2%). The sector is a particularly important source of employment for some groups, with 52% of male Bangladeshi workers employed in restaurants, compared to only 1% of white males (Holgate, 2004: 21). In London, migrant workers (those born outside the UK) account for 60% of those employed in the hotel and restaurant sector (GLA, 2005: 68), compared to 31% of all London workers who were born outside the UK. However there have been important changes in the composition of the hotel and restaurant workforce since the 2001 census, with employers filling vacancies in the sector by employing significant numbers of workers from the East European countries that acceded to the EU in 2004 (known as the A8 countries). The government requires nationals of the A8 countries who wish to work in the UK to register with the Worker Registration Scheme (WRS), and Home Office figures show that of the 375,000 workers registered between May 2004 and March 2006, 22% were working in hospitality and catering (80,570 workers) (Home Office, 1 http://www. workinglives. org/HotelCatering. html 5 2006a). There has, however, been a decline in the proportion of WRS applicants in Hospitality and Catering from 31% in the second quarter of 2004, to 18% in the first quarter of 2006, with Administration, Business and Management now employing greater numbers. The highest proportion of all applicants under the scheme were Polish (61%), followed by Lithuanian (12%) and Slovak (10%). The figures also show a movement of registered workers to other parts of the UK than London, with the percentage applying to London falling from 25% in the second quarter of 2004, to 11% in the first quarter of 2006 (Home Office, 2006a). While working conditions in the industry have been well documented as consisting of low pay, low status, exploitation of employees and lack of unionisation (e.g. Gabriel, 1988; Price, 1994; Head and Lucas, 2004; LPC 2005), little has been written in the UK about the actual experiences of ethnic minority and migrant workers, with much of the existing literature focusing on management behaviour and strategy (Wright and Pollert, 2005). Some recent exceptions include a study of low pay in London (Evans et al, 2005), which included the hotel and catering industry. This study of 341 randomly selected low paid workers contained 90% who were migrants. Of their sample of hotel and hospitality workers, the largest group (two-fifths) were non-British whites, mainly from Eastern Europe, followed by Africans (24%). It found the lowest rates of pay to be in the hotel and catering sector, below contract cleaning, home care and the food industry. Other recent research has considered the experience of Central and East European migrants in low paid employment in the UK in the context of the A8 countries joining the EU, and covers hospitality, along with construction, agriculture and au pairs (Anderson et al, 2006). It is some 15 years since the Commission for Racial Equality (CRE) undertook a formal investigation into recruitment and selection in hotels (CRE, 1991) in response to concern that the sector was failing to consider equal opportunities in employment practices. It found that ethnic minority staff were disproportionately concentrated in unskilled jobs, and found only one ethnic minority manager out of 117 hotels investigated. It made a number of recommendations about how hotels should improve their practices in relation to recruitment, monitoring, positive action and training taking account of equal opportunities issues. However, we have been unable to find evidence of any monitoring or evaluation of whether these recommendations have been heeded or implemented by hotel employers. While knowledge of employment rights among all workers in the UK is poor, it has been shown that vulnerable groups know even less (Pollert, 2005). A random survey of people’s awareness of employment rights in the West Midlands found that women, ethnic minorities, young people and the low paid were least likely to be aware of their rights (WMLPU, 2001). The research was undertaken in the context of considerable public debate on migration policy, and at a time when the government was intending to phase out low skilled migration schemes, such as the Sectors Based Scheme, which granted work permits to certain numbers of workers in skills shortage sectors such as hospitality, in the light of new labour available from the European Union (Home Office,2005). At the same time there is increasing concern for â€Å"vulnerable† workers, and the government has recently published a policy statement on protecting vulnerable workers, defined as â€Å"someone working in an environment where the risk of being denied employment rights is high and who does not have the capacity or means to protect themselves from that abuse† (DTI, 2006: 25). 6 1. 2 Research aims The research set out to address the following key questions: 1. What are the working conditions of ethnic minority and migrant workers in hotels and restaurants? 2. How are working conditions seen and what are perceived as ‘problems’, and how does this impact on acceptance of poor working conditions? 3. What type of problems do ethnic minority and migrant workers have working in hotels and restaurants? 4. How do these compare to the problems generally affecting workers in the sector and to what extent are they associated with particular labourmarket niches within the sector to which these workers are confined? If this is so, to what extent is the insecurity of migrant status relevant, or is racial discrimination relevant? 5. How much do ethnic minority and migrant workers in this sector know about their rights at work, and to what extent do ethnic minority and migrant workers in this sector attempt to enforce their legal rights at work, or instead try to find ways to achieve a sufficient income and manageable working conditions, even if this means colluding with illegal employment practices? 6. How much do ethnic minority and migrant workers in this sector know about where to get advice and support for problems at work? And who do they turn to for advice and support? To what extent do ethnic minority and migrant workers in this sector use statutory (i.e. Acas, CRE), voluntary (CABx, local advice agencies), trade union, community (groups or informal contacts through ethnic networks) or informal (friends, family) sources of support and advice? 7. What are the experiences of ethnic minority and migrant workers in this sector of using all these sources of support and advice and what barriers do they face in accessing support and advice for workplace problems? 1. 3 Structure of the report The report describes the research methodology and access routes, together with the characteristics of the interviewees in section 2. The working conditions experienced by interviewees are described in section 3, confirming evidence from much of the existing literature on the sector, but also highlighting where the experience of ethnic minority and migrant workers may be particular. Section 4 describes the problems encountered by interviewees in their jobs in hotels and restaurants, but also considers the attitude of these workers to defining â€Å"problems† at work, as well as their approaches to resolving problems and barriers to resolution. The information, support and advice available to and used by the ethnic minority and migrant workers interviewed is explored in section 5, together with their awareness of employment rights in the UK. 7 In section 6 conclusions are drawn about the specific experiences of ethnic minority and migrant workers in the sector, the problems that they face and their need for support and advice, suggesting that changes need to be made to practice within the sector, as well as in improved provision of support to ethnic minority and migrant workers. 8 2. METHODOLOGY The project employed qualitative research methods to gather in-depth accounts of the experiences of 50 ethnic minority and migrant workers. Interviews were carried out between May 2005 and May 2006. In addition, interviews and face-to ­ face and telephone conversations were held with key informants to provide contextual information on features and trends within the sector affecting ethnic minority and migrant workers. The strengths of using qualitative methods are that they can not only identify tangible issues (the problems themselves, for example), but also more elusive, subjective issues, such as motivation, perceptions of opportunities and of rights, sense of inclusion, integration and fairness – or their opposites – sense of frustration, alienation and barriers to obtaining support and fairness at work. 2. 1 Regional scope The research project was confined to England within the terms of reference set by the European Social Fund. Three English regions were selected in order to provide a comparison of experiences of migrant and ethnic minority workers: London, the West Midlands and the South West. London and the West Midlands have considerably larger non-white and migrant populations than other parts of the country, with significant numbers of Bangladeshis and Pakistanis working in the hotel and restaurant sector in the West Midlands (Wright and Pollert, 2005: 27 ­ 28). In contrast, the South West is the English region with the smallest non-white population, but is experiencing a growth in migrant workers. The problems facing ethnic minority and migrant populations here have been less well documented, but where studies have been done, isolation from ethnic minority communities and support structures emerges as an issue (BMG Research, 2003; Gaine and Lamley, 2003; SWTUC, 2004). Tourism also accounts for 10% of total employment in the South West, with the greatest proportion of these (70%) employed in the hospitality sector – accommodation, restaurants, pubs etc. (Tourism Skills Network South West, 2002). In the South West it was decided to focus the research on two towns with a large tourist population and therefore a high demand for a hotel and restaurant workforce: Bournemouth and Plymouth. The Human Resources manager of a Bournemouth hotel group, interviewed for this research, said that only 32% of their workforce was British, indicating a high reliance on foreign-born workers. 2. 2 Definitions of ethnic minority and migrant workers The research includes both â€Å"ethnic minority† and â€Å"migrant† workers, categories which, in real life, are complex, changing and overlapping. Some ethnic minorities (using the Labour Force Survey definitions) will also be migrants. Migrants (defined here as all those who were born outside the UK, Home Office, 2002) may or may not be defined as ethnic minorities, and may or may not be discriminated against. White Australian or Canadian migrant workers, for example, would not be. But Kosovan people may be regarded as ethnic minorities, and suffer racism and discrimination, and Czech or Polish people may or may not be discriminated against, and while they may not be â€Å"visible† in terms of skin colour, in the way black and Asian people are, they are â€Å"visible† in terms of language, cultural characteristics, and discrimination. As many â€Å"white† Eastern Europeans are now 9 working in the hotel and restaurant sector, particularly since the EU enlargement in May 2004, it was felt to be important to include their experiences in the study. 2. 3 Access to research participants In order to include the experience of a broad range of interviewees from different ethnic groups and backgrounds, including both recent and more settled ethnic minorities, it was decided to use multiple routes to access interviewees. Therefore a range of bodies were contacted, many with a twofold purpose of: a) providing contextual information about the sector and/or the experiences of particular ethnic groups; and b) helping gain access to research participants. Organisations contacted included trade unions, community and worker organisations, sector bodies, employers and statutory and advice agencies (see Appendix 2). In the South West, where there are fewer organised community groups than in the two other regions, we spoke to officers at Bournemouth Borough Council, who gave us informal contacts within the main local ethnic minority communities, as well as putting us in contact with several community interpreters who spoke the main languages of the local ethnic minority groups: Portuguese, Korean, Turkish, Bengali and Spanish. These routes proved very useful in helping to access research participants and in providing interpretation for interviews. However, in the end, Turkish and Bangladeshi workers were reluctant to come forward to be interviewed, which the interpreters said was because they were fearful of speaking out about their employers, despite reassurances of confidentiality. In all three areas we used fieldworkers who were able to use their language skills to carry out interviews in workers’ native languages, namely Bengali, Spanish, Polish, Lithuanian and Mandarin. The fieldworkers were also able to provide access to workers who may not have come forward otherwise, being people who were known and trusted among their own ethnic communities, or who were able to provide sufficient reassurance of confidentiality. Training was provided in using the interview guide to all fieldworkers to ensure a common approach was used in interviews and that fieldworkers understood the aims and objectives of the research. While the approach used provided access to workers in a wide range of establishments, from large hotel groups to small independent restaurants, including several working ‘illegally’ or ‘informally’, we acknowledge that using such routes could not access the most hard-to-reach illegal migrant and ethnic minority workers, who may constitute a considerable proportion of workers in the sector. The research may not fully represent the worst conditions found in the ‘underbelly’ of the sector as suffered by many ‘illegal’ or ‘undocumented’ migrants, as portrayed, for example, in Steven Frear’s 2002 film about a London hotel, Dirty Pretty Things. It was decided not only to seek out interviewees who perceived themselves as having had a â€Å"problem† at work, but a range of people in different jobs in the sector, in order to explore their typical work experiences and their attitudes towards â€Å"problems† and conditions in the sector. 10 2. 4 Key informants In addition to the worker interviews, at least 20 key informants (see Appendix 2) provided further context on the hotel and restaurant sector, including regional knowledge. These included employers and employer representative bodies, trade union officials and branch members, community organisations, representatives of sector bodies and statutory and voluntary organisations. In some cases in-depth interviews were carried out, and in others more informal conversations were held either face-to-face or on the telephone. 2. 5 Worker interviews A total of 50 in-depth qualitative interviews were carried out in the three regions, with a greater number in London due to the huge range of ethnic minority and migrant workers in the sector in the capital. The breakdown was as follows: Table 1: Worker interviews by region Region London South West West Midlands Total % 46% 24% 30% 100% No. of worker interviews 23 12 15 50 during the interviews, which and a half. Participants were of both themselves and their participation with a ? 10 shop A semi-structured interview schedule was used generally lasted between 45 minutes to an hour assured of confidentiality, and of the anonymity employer. They were thanked for their time and voucher. At the start of the interview, participants were asked to complete a two-page questionnaire giving basic demographic and employment details, data from which is provided in the following section. 2. 5. 1 Ethnicity Respondents were asked to describe their ethnicity, according to the classification used in the 2001 Census. The results are grouped together in table 2. Table 2: Ethnicity of the sample Ethnicity White Bangladeshi and Pakistani Chinese and Other Asian Black Mixed % 36% 26% 20% 16% 2% No. of interviewees 18 13 10 8 1 11 2. 5. 2 Country of birth Table 3 shows the range of countries from which interviewees came. It was notable that only one participant was born in the UK, despite attempts to find British-born ethnic minority workers in the sector. Both fieldworkers and interviewees themselves commented that many British-born people do not wish to work in a sector that is known for low pay and long hours, including the children of migrants interviewed, as they seek better alternative employment opportunities (some young British-born workers do work in the sector while they are students, but tend to do so for only a short time). Table 3: Country of birth Country of birth Bangladesh China Colombia France Ghana Holland Indonesia Ivory coast Korea Lithuania Philippines Poland Portugal Slovakia Somalia Spain Sudan Turkey UK Ukraine 2. 5. 3 Gender Women are under-represented in the sample (38% of interviewees) compared to their presence in the sector as a whole, but this reflects the fact that the sample includes a substantial number of Bangladeshi workers, who represent a significant group in the sector in the West Midlands, and most of these workers are male (Wright and Pollert, 2005: 27-28). 2. 5. 4 Age Only one interviewee was under 21 years old. Almost two-fifths (38%) were aged 21 to 30 years old, and the same proportion were between 31 and 40 years old. Six interviewees (12%) were aged 41 to 50, and five (10%) were between 51 to 60. None of the interviewees were aged over 60. 2. 5. 5 Education Overall the sample was fairly highly educated, with 36% having a first stage or higher degree. Another 10% had post-secondary non-tertiary level education, and 36% had received education up to secondary level, while 12% had received. % 24% 10% 6% 2% 4% 2% 2% 2% 6% 8% 2% 4% 4% 6% 6% 2% 2% 4% 2% 2% No. of interviewees 12 5 3 1 2 1 1 1 3 4 1 2 2 3 3 1 1 2 1 1 12 primary level education or less. A further 6% had other qualifications or the details of their education were not known. 2. 5. 6 Employment The majority (62%) of the interviewees worked in restaurants, while 30% worked in hotels. The remaining 8% either worked in both hotels and restaurants, as agency workers, or in catering services. More than half of respondents (54%) said there were 10 or fewer employees where they worked. A further 22% said there were between 11 and 25 people where they worked. Only 6% worked for employers with between 26 to 49 people and 10% said there were 50 or more employees where they worked. However these figures should be treated with caution, and may underestimate the number working for larger employers, as respondents may have interpreted the questions as referring to the workplace or department of the hotel where they worked, rather than the employer as a whole. Almost half the interviewees (48%) worked as waiters or waitresses, either in hotels or restaurants. Another 20% were chefs or cooks, and a further 4% worked in kitchens as general assistants. 12% said they were supervisors or managers and 4% described themselves as cashiers. Another 10% worked in other jobs in hotels as receptionist, general assistant or porter/bar worker. The majority of workers were full-time (70%), while 14% said they worked parttime, and 14% were casual workers. Working hours were long. The largest proportion (40%) worked over 40 hours per week – 10% worked between 41 and 48 hours, while almost a third (30%) said they worked over 48 hours a week. Just over a third (36%) worked between 21 and 40 hours a week. Only 6% did less than 20 hours a week. The majority (82%) had only one job at the time of the interview, with 18% having two or more jobs. However, some of those currently working in only one job talked of previous times in the sector when they had more than one job. 2. 5. 7 Union membership Only five were members of a trade union (either the GMB or the TG), or 10% of the interviewees, although this is still a higher proportion than in the sector as a whole, where only 5% of workers are unionised (Wright and Pollert, 2005: 25). 2. 6 Data analysis All worker interviews were tape recorded and transcribed (or detailed notes were made where the quality of the recording did not allow for full transcription) with the participants’ consent, and field-notes were made shortly after the interviews. This data was analysed with the help of QSR N6 data analysis software in order to assist a consistent and rigorous approach to the data being analysed. A thematic index was developed to categorise the transcripts according to major themes and transcripts were coded accordingly using the N6 software.

Conflicts Are Inevitable In Human Life Politics Essay

Conflicts Are Inevitable In Human Life Politics Essay Conflicts are inevitable in human life and existence and are a necessary part of life. Conflicts are necessary for change in human society since they help to build relationships in groups, establish a groups identity, build internal cohesion in groups and can lead to balance of power in society as well as create new rules and laws (Coser, 1956). However, when conflicts are violent, and depending on the nature and type of intervention schemes used, they remain unresolved and can become protracted disrupting policy-making and development since attention is diverted from issues that will otherwise improve the lives of people to the conflict. Consequently, it is important to resolve violent conflicts to prevent these conflicts from diverting attention from issues of development. Historically, the first and second world wars resulted in massive destruction of property and human life and a decrease in levels of socio-economic development in poor nations (Blattman Miguel, 2008). During the Second World War, for instance, about 60 million people died, a new wave of arms race arose and nations like Germany had many properties destroyed (Blattman Miguel, 2008). Then came the Cold War with its manifestations of proxy and quasi conflicts in developing countries of Europe, Africa, Asia and America. Violent conflicts poses serious threats to human security, peace, life, stability, social and economic activities; weakens institutions; breaks social cohesion; and causes humanitarian tragedies such as internal displacement, refugeeism and rape (Zeleza, 2008). Indeed, violent conflict is one main impediment to development because it can seriously hinder development efforts spilling over borders, reducing economic growth and prosperity (Ali, 2006). The examples of Haiti, Bosnia, Burundi, Sudan and Somalia are worth noting as development in these states has been seriously curtailed because violent conflicts have endangered peoples lives and continue to worsen the poverty situation in these countries. During the conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the country lost 2 percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as well as losses in other economic indicators (Oelbaum, 2007). In the West African sub-region, countries like Liberia, Sierra Leone, Nigeria, La Cote dIvoire and Guin ea have had violent conflicts with their devastating consequences on stability, political and social development of these states (Adetula, 2006). More than 250,000 lives were lost in Liberia and millions worth of infrastructure destroyed (Adetula, 2006). During violent conflicts, farmers cannot go to their farms to work for fear of losing their lives and farms are set ablaze leading to the destruction of farm produce. Traders and businessmen cannot engage in commercial activities leaving markets deserted. Properties of individuals and households are lost through arson and looting. Local revenue mobilizations are seriously curtailed due to the breakdown of commercial activities and security. Moreover, schools are closed down affecting the work of teachers and students since they cannot attend school which negatively affects academic performance. Businesses and most of the workforce also relocate to other places where there is peace (absence of violence). Consequently, many development efforts are negatively affected, because peace which is needed to ensure development is absent. However, where peace prevails and there is no violent conflict, security is guaranteed and the environment becomes conducive for engaging in economic and agricultural activities and, peoples livelihoods can be ensured (Francis, 2006). Many people can move about freely without restrictions since their security is guaranteed. Also, local investments and businesses are attracted to peaceful areas than places where there are violence and, generally, people are able to participate in the development process. Thus peace remains a pre-requisite for development since development can best be pursued in a violent free environment. The end of the Cold War saw a spate of new and different conflicts in many parts of the world with specific causes with Africa getting her share of these conflicts. These were intra- state conflicts which included predominantly, ethnic conflicts between rival ethnic groups, conflicts over succession and power struggles within the state and conflicts over the control of state resources (Idowu, 2005). From 1946-2010, the world has had 243 conflicts, out of which 36 have been active since 2009 (Uppsala Conflict Data Program (UCDP), 2010). Most of these conflicts in several parts of Africa have often been driven by ethnic contest for power, land, resources and the struggle for identity and, in recent times, political infiltrations (Osaghae, 2005). These ethnic conflicts, such as the Sudanese, Burundian and Democratic Republic of Congos conflicts, have created deep-seated hatred and destructions with their attendant manifestations of genocide, mistrust, inequality in the distribution of p ower and resources among ethnic groups in these states. Many of these intra-state conflicts became protracted and thus affected development with severe consequences not only for various nations but individuals and families. Ghana has often been described at both local and international levels as an oasis of peace and stability in a continent besieged by conflicts. The peaceful organization of the 2008 general elections has made Ghana a beacon of hope for democracy, good governance, stability and peace in Africa. The American Fund for Peace in 2009 described Ghana as the most peaceful and stable country in Africa (Myjoyonline, July 15, 2009). Unlike her neighbours, Ghana remains relatively peaceful and has not experienced any violent conflict of a national scale. However, Ghanas image as a beacon of peace in Africa is marred by some internecine ethnic, land and chieftaincy conflicts which sometimes result into violent ones with negative consequences for human lives and local level development (Gyimah, Kane Oduro, 2009). Most conflicts in Ghana are localized inter-ethnic and intra-ethnic disputes that mainly result from disputes over chieftaincy, land, identity and resources and, in more recent years, political and economic connections (Kendie Akudugu, 2010; Tsikata Seini, 2004). Although some of these ethnic conflicts have always remained localized, they have often drawn national and international attention since their consequences have a toll on national resources and development (Agyeman, 2008). Resources such as financial allocations or revenue mobilizations which otherwise could be used for development are channeled into maintaining peace and security in these areas. Also, localized activities such as farming, industry, commerce, busin ess investments and livelihoods are disrupted. The Konkomba and Nanumba/Dagomba conflict in 1994/95, for instance, resulted in the loss of 2000 lives and 18,900 animals, over 500,000 tubers of yam destroyed, 60,000 acres of crops set on fire, 144 farming villages burnt, 78,000 people displaced and millions of property belonging to the state and indigenes destroyed (Mahama, 2003). It is worth noting that ethnic relations among many of the diverse ethnic groups in Ghana have remained cordial as compared to others in the continent such as Nigeria, Rwanda and La Cote dIvoire (Gyimah, Kane Oduro, 2009). This is because ethnic relations among the ethnic groups in Ghana have not degenerated into conflict of a national scale as it is the case with Nigeria, Rwanda and Cote dIvoire. There have, however, been very devastating and protracted ethnic strifes among some ethnic groups in Ghana. Notable among these are the intra-ethnic conflicts among the Dagombas, the Ewes of Peki-Tsito and the inter-ethnic conflicts between the Kusasis and Mamprusis, Konkomba and Nanumba/Dagomba, Nkonya (Guan) and Alavanyo (Ewe) people, the Akropong-Akwapim and Abiriw people and Gonja and Nawuri people (Agyeman, 2008). Many of these localized conflicts in Ghana have assumed a protracted nature with occasional flaring up of violence which has negative impact on local and general development in these areas (Akwetey, 1996). The Dagbon chieftaincy, Bunkpurugu-Yunyo, the Buipe chieftaincy and Akropong-Akwapem and Abiriw land conflicts are yet to be resolved, and occasional violence in these areas pose grave danger to localized development efforts and many poor and marginalized people become the principal victims of these violence. One such conflict also is the Bawku conflict. The conflict is a deep-seated and longstanding ethno-political conflict between the Kusasis and Mamprusis in the Bawku Traditional Area of Ghana. The Bawku Traditional Area is one of the largest areas in the Upper East Region of Ghana located in the north-eastern part of the region and shares borders with Togo and Burkina Faso (GhanaDistricts.com, 2009, June 12). The economic base of the area is mainly agriculture, although trade and commerce are also conducted. Ethnically, the Bawku Traditional Area is occupied by Kusasis, Mamprusis, Busangas, Hausas, Mossis, Bimobas, Frafras and other minor groups with the Kusasis being the majority in terms of population (Bawku Municipal Assembly, 2006). The Bawku conflict is identity-based, and revolves around the claim for traditional political power (chieftaincy) between the Kusasis and Mamprusis. The contest between the Kusasis and Mamprusis over the Bawku chieftaincy has its roots in colonial times. Since the 1930s, the conflict has taken different twists and has remained intense and unresolved, and therefore protracted. There appears to be apparent political interference in the conflict and this has intensified violence in Bawku, stalling development efforts in the area (Lund, 2003). The primary actors in the conflict the Kusasis and Mamprusis have taken entrenched positions making resolution efforts difficult and almost impossible. Since the inception of the Bawku conflict, frantic efforts have been made at resolving it. The colonial government established the Opoku-Afari Committee in 1957 to help resolve the conflict when disputing claims for the chieftaincy started. The enactment of National Liberation Council (NLC) Decree 112 and Provisional National Defence Council Law (PNDCL) 75, which although were not directly intended for the Bawku conflict only, was also used in a bid to help end the conflict, but these have failed. Governments have also used mediation to help end the conflict. In 2008, the then President of Ghana, John A. Kufuor, invited both the Kusasis and Mamprusis to The Castle (seat of Ghanas Government) to broker peace between them but this failed. This was followed by mediation by the National Peace Council (NPC), but the conflict still continued. In March 2009, following the outbreak of violence, Vice President John Mahama embarked on a mediation mission to help resolve the conflict between th e two factions but the violence still continued. This was again followed by a visit by President John Atta Mills to Bolgatanga to help broker peace between the two groups but it also failed to bring the desired peace. All these mediation efforts have thus failed to end the conflict. The two ethnic groups have also resorted to the law courts to back their claim for the Bawku skin. These include writ filed by the Mamprusis at the divisional court to reverse the Governor Generals decision in 1957; the Kusasis counter writ at the Appeal Court in 1958 to overturn the ruling by the divisional court; and again the Mamprusis court action for their claim to the Bawku skin in 2003. All these court actions have apparently failed to bring an end to the conflict. Governments have also instituted internal peace-keeping operations by deploying security personnel to the area and used the imposition of curfews to manage the conflict, but the conflict still rages on. A number of CSOs /NGOs since 2001 have also made efforts at mediating to end the conflict through peace building processes and conflict resolution mechanisms. These efforts include the Bawku Peace Accord reached between the stakeholders in the conflict at the Damongo Peace Agreement, which was spearheaded by a consortium of NGOs mediating in the conflict, including Action Aid Ghana, the West African Network for Peacebuilding (WANEP), Advocacy Peace Group IBIS (Ghana), the Catholic Relief Services (CRS), the Christian Council of Ghana and the Bawku East Womens Development Association (BEWDA). The National Peace Council (NPC) has also mediated and drawn up a roadmap to peace but has not helped to end the conflict. In addition, an Inter-ethnic Peace Committee was formed in 2010 by both ethnic groups to help resolve the conflict (WANEP, 2010). The aforementioned efforts have all failed to bring the needed resolution of the conflict and peace to the Traditional Area. The protracted nature of the conflict has implications for development in the area. Its continuation poses threats to commerce, agriculture, education, healthcare, security and general development of the traditional area. When peace and security in the area is guaranteed, sustained development is likely to be pursued. Statement of the problem Violent conflicts have very devastating consequences on local level development because they produce a cycle of violence and depending on the nature and type of intervention, can result in the protraction of conflicts. The continuous violence in Bawku as a result of the conflict has consequences on the development of the area, as well as the resources of the nation in general. The violence in the area is a bane to agriculture, commerce, human lives, property and infrastructure, and is exacerbating the poverty situation in the area (Daily Graphic, June 8, 2008). Reports of the conflict indicate that there is general insecurity and lawlessness in the area, and this results in the imposition of frequent curfews which curtail free movement of people and the brutalization of civilians during curfew hours (Amnesty International Ghana, 2008). Localized development efforts like agriculture and commerce are curtailed. Besides, cross-border trading and other commercial activities in the Bawku area have also been affected. The loss of lives in the area has become a daily routine as many lives are unaccounted for. There is also continuous destruction of property and infrastructure. In the wake of the violence in December 2007, 155 shops and many houses were burnt and several people displaced (Ghanaweb, January 7, 2008). The state continues to spend money and resources in deploying security personnel to the area to maintain peace. The conflict leads to proliferation of illegal arms which continue to be used in perpetuating violence. The overall impact of all these is deepening of the poverty situation in the area. With the realization by government, CSOs/NGOs, some international organizations and even the indigenes of the area of the need for a final resolution of the conflict, many efforts have been made to resolve the conflict to bring sustainable peace to promote development in the area. However, efforts by government, NGOs and other stakeholders at finding a lasting solution to the conflict through committees of enquiry, mediation, inter-ethnic peace dialogues, peacekeeping operations, law and order and the use of the court system have not yielded the desired results at finding sustainable peace and a final resolution to the protracted conflict between the two ethnic groups. Critical analyses of the protracted nature of the conflict bring into question what alternative resolution mechanisms can be used to resolve the conflict or complement both government and CSOs/NGOs efforts at finally resolving the conflict to enhance peace and development in the area. Besides, the protracted nature of the conflict and frequent eruption of violence directly have a relationship with development and hence the need to analyze the ramifications of the conflict on socio-economic development of the Bawku Traditional Area. It is in the light of the above that this study seeks to research into how the conflict in the Bawku Traditional Area affects socio-economic development of the area. Objectives of the study The general objective of the study was to examine how the ethnic conflict in the Bawku Traditional Area affects socio-economic development in the area. The specific objectives of the study were to: Ascertain the effects of the Bawku ethnic conflict on agriculture in the area; Examine the effects of the conflict on commercial activities in the area; Examine the effects of the conflict on general security in the traditional area; Ascertain the effects of the conflict on education and health care in the area; Examine the prospects for peace in the area; and Make recommendations for peaceful resolution of the conflict. Research questions The study employed the following research questions in investigating the problem: What are the effects of the Bawku ethnic conflict on agriculture in the traditional area? What are the effects of the conflict on commercial activities in the area? How is the conflict in the Bawku Traditional area affecting security in the area? What are the effects of the conflict on education and health care in the area? What are the prospects for peace in the traditional area? Relevance of the study The frequent recurrence of the Bawku conflict remains a source of worry to many people, the inhabitants of Bawku, government and NGOs. Despite government efforts and a lot of efforts by NGOs that have been made to resolve the conflict, the erratic and frequent outbreak of the conflict between the two feuding ethnic groups seem to elude any workable solution for a final settlement and sustainable peace and this tends to be negatively affecting local level development. It is claimed that government has spent more than GHÂ ¢648 million on maintaining security in northern Ghana alone since 2002 (Kumateh, 2005 cited in Aganah, 2008). It has been the desire and pursuit of government and NGOs to resolve the ethnic conflict in Bawku and other ethnic conflicts around the country to minimize their impact on development efforts. The attempts over the years at resolving the conflict have all failed to bring lasting peace to Bawku. This study will provide and add to empirical knowledge on the nexus between ethnic conflict and development, as well as empirical information on the effects of protracted conflicts on development. The results of this study will also provide pragmatic information to help resolve the Bawku conflict and other protracted ethnic conflicts around the country. It is equally hoped that the findings and recommendations of this study would be of interest to government, who is a major stakeholder in the conflict, NGOs and other interest groups involved in conflict and development. All researches on the conflict are aimed at how to resolve the conflict. This study examines the effects of the conflict on development to inform all stakeholders on the deleterious ramifications of the conflict in the hope that the protagonists would see the need for peace. Organization of the study The study is organized into six chapters. Chapter One presents the introductory part of the whole study which includes the background to the study, the statement of the problem, the objectives of the study, the research questions, the relevance of the study and how the study is organized. Chapter Two examines a review of relevant literature on the study. This covers relevant issues such as development, conflict, the impact of conflict on development and the relationship between conflict resolution and development. Theoretical bases and a conceptual framework of the study are also examined in this chapter. Chapter Three examines the Bawku conflict into detail tracing its historical basis, dynamics, causes and current developments. Chapter Four deals with the methodology used in carrying out the study. It comprises a description of the study area, the study design, the population, the sample for the study, the sampling techniques, the data collection techniques and the data analysis procedure. The presentation and analyses of the results are the focus of Chapter Five. Chapter Six finally presents summary of the findings, conclusions and recommendations. CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF LITERATURE Introduction This chapter reviews literature related to the subject matter of the study. These include the review of concepts as well as the theoretical and conceptual frameworks for the study. Development The term development has been used and defined variously by different scholars at length. However, the term is generally about change and growth in human well-being at the individual, community, regional, national, or global circles. Historically, development used to be equated to economic growth and generally concerned with the ability of a countrys economy to increase and sustain its Gross National Product (GNP) or Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in real items. In this way, development was measured in terms of real growth in per capita income (Schoeman, 1998). Since the 1950s, the meaning of the term development has changed from merely looking at development as an increase in GNP or GDP. According to Stewart (2004), this is a very inadequate characterization and definition of the term development. There is now a change towards alternative development strategies due to the inadequacy of the economic growth paradigm (Kendie, 2002). Development generally is about improvement and qualitative change in the lives of individual people or an entire society. Development, according to Todaro (1997, p. 9), is: a multidimensional process involving major changes in social structures, popular attitudes and institutions, as well as the acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequality and eradication of poverty. This involves changes in human conditions which involve important facets such as economic well-being, security, reduction in inequality and poverty, the absence of violent conflict and its proper resolution and management. Todaro Smith (2009) observe that there are three important aspects of development: Raising peoples level of living their incomes and consumption levels of food, education, medical services etc.; Creating conditions conducive for the growth of peoples self-esteem through the establishment of social, political and economic systems and institutions that promote human dignity and respect; and Increasing peoples freedom by enlarging the range of their choice variables by increasing varieties of consumer goods and services. Stewart (2004) equally conceptualized development simply as a progress in human well-being. This includes well-being in the general life of human beings including peoples health, education and security. The reference to security presupposes the absence of violent conflict and a proper resolution and management of these conflicts when they occur. Similarly, Ibeanu (2006, p. 10) posits that development: is a process of improving the conditions in which human beings live. Ibeanu (2006) believes that these conditions emanate from a complex interplay of both the natural environment and the social or inter-human environment. These include peace, justice and security which are important tenets of development. Amartya Sen (1999) also sees development simply as freedom. that is freedom in all forms economic, social and political freedom. Sen believes that political freedom empowers individuals to build their capabilities for development. One important tenet that can ensure development is human security the ability of people to be safe. Violent conflict which constitutes an obstacle to security is a serious impediment to development, and development cannot be realized in an insecure and conflictual environment. The UNDP Human Development Report of 1994 notes that human security is an important part of development and development can only occur in a peaceful society (UNDP, 1994). Human security Security, according to Francis (2006, p.22), is generally about the condition or feeling safe from harm or danger, the defence, protection and preservation of core values, and the absence of threats to acquire values. Security is about conditions that ensure human existence and survival. Peace, development and justice, especially in Africa, are important conditions of security since the absence of these can create conditions for conflict and insecurity (Francis, 2006). The security of humans remains a very important part of their well-being and development. The term human security was first initiated in 1994 by the UNDP Human Development Report to focus security from the point of view of people, as opposed to that of the security of states (Jolly Ray, 2006). Thus human security is people-centred security or security with a human face, which places human beings-rather than states-as the focal point of security considerations (United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR) , 2009). Since then, discussions on security have been focused on human security than states security. In defining human security, the UNDP (1994, p. 3) states that: for too long, the concept of security has been shaped by the potential for conflict between states. For too long, security has been equated with threats to a countrys borders. For too long, nations have sought arms to protect their security. For most people today, a feeling of insecurity arises more from worries about daily life than from the dread of a cataclysmic world event. Job security, health security, environmental security, security from crime, these are the emerging concerns of human security all over the world. The simplest definition of human security, according to Jolly Ray (2006, p. 6), is primarily an analytical tool that focuses on ensuring security for the individual, not the state. Tadjbakhsh (2005) also conceptualizes human security as freedom from fear and freedom from want. That is to be secure is to be free from both fear (of physical, sexual or psychological abuse, violence, persecution, or death) and from want (of gainful employment, food, and health). The UN Commission on Human Security (CHS) (2003) gives a broader definition of human security as the protection of the vital core of all human lives in ways that enhance human freedoms and human fulfillment. According to the CHS, this means: Protecting basic rights and freedoms; Protecting people from severe and widespread threats and circumstance; Motivating and empowering people to take their destiny into their own hands; and Providing the necessary political, social, environmental, economic, military as well as cultural framework and systems within which people can live meaningful and dignified lives (CHS, 2003, p.4). Thus, the key premises of human security contained in the UNDP 1994 Report (1994) are: (i) its focus on freedom from fear and freedom from want, and (ii) its four emphasis on universality, interdependence, prevention, and people-centredness. The elements of human security include violent conflict; poverty; humanitarian crises; epidemic diseases; injustice; inequality; fear; and wants (Alkire, 2003). Violent conflict remains one major threat to human security in that it threatens peoples opportunities for their well-being including their freedom from fear and want, and limit their opportunities for development. Violent conflicts deny humans the security to engage in their commercial, agricultural and other activities. According to the CHS (2003), some strategies must be put in place to ensure the security of people in relation to violent conflict. These include protecting people caught up in violent conflict through incorporating in the agenda of international, regional and security organizations, designing a holistic approach to protect people caught up in violent conflict and curbing further violence; empowering people recovering from violent conflict through conflict resolution and prevention and building social protraction systems for the poor after conflict. Conflict Conflict is one of the most inevitable things in life and occurs at all levels of human society at home, school, the family, society or at the work level. The term, however, has been defined and used differently. According to Lund (1997), conflict occurs when two or more parties pursue incompatible interests or goals through actions that the parties try to undo or damage each other. These parties could be individuals, groups or countries. The parties interests can differ over access to resources, the control of political or traditional power, their identity and values or ideology (Maiese, 2003). The realization of these needs and interests by people can lead to conflict. When two groups or individuals such as ethnic groups pursue incompatible interests and needs which could either be political, economic, social or cultural, they can engage in conflict which can be violent. In the opinion of Coser (1956, p. 121), conflict occurs when two or more people engage in a struggle over values and claims to status, power and resources in which the aims of the opponents are to neutralize, injure or eliminate their rivals. Coser seeks to argue that people in conflict are in competition or struggle over their identity, resources or power in which the conflicting parties attempt to undo one another. One thing that is worth mentioning in Cosers definition is the fact that it identifies the causes of conflicts which include struggles over peoples identity, power and resources. Conflict, therefore, is a struggle which is either positive or negative between two individuals or groups in pursuit of interests and goals on which they sharply disagree. Ethnic conflicts According to Richardson Jr. Sen (1996), an ethnic conflict is a struggle between rival ethnic groups who seek to get control of political power to maintain it. This is usually done through ethnicity, which plays an important role in mobilizing, structuring and managing ethnic groups and institutions. This definition recognizes that political power is the rationale behind ethnic conflict. Indeed, many ethnic groups fight over the control of political power which can either be state or traditional power in order to gain control over political institutions within the state or traditional area. However, many proximate causes such as the struggle for resources could also account for ethnic conflicts. Political power cannot, therefore, be the only cause of ethnic conflicts. According to Maiese (2003), ethnic conflicts are conflicts over peoples identity that are internal among or between ethnic groups within a country who tend to compete for resources, power or claims over their status and not between states. To this end, Irobi (2005) and Agyeman (2008) maintain that ethnic conflicts which are conflicts over race, identity and language become complex, and this makes it very difficult to resolve them primarily due to ethnicity which defines the totality of an individuals existence including his hopes, fears and sense of future. Ethnic conflicts have induced over 70 percent of conflicts in the world [Center for Development and conflict Management (CIDCM), 2009]. Africa, Asia, America and Europe have all experienced varying degrees of ethnic conflicts with dire consequences. In Africa, Rwanda, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Nigeria and Ghana have experienced devastating ethnic conflicts. There are also longstanding ethnic conflicts in Sri Lanka, Kosovo, Bosnia and former Yugoslavia. Generally, ethnic conflicts result from

Impact of Government Expenditures on Private Consumption

Impact of Government Expenditures on Private Consumption Discuss the implications of a rise in government expenditures on private consumption behaviour. Introduction The following paper will analyse the impact that government expenditure has on the household’s consumption behaviour. Prior to starting the discussion it is imperative to highlight that government expenditure is either in the form of building roads, railways etc. or by changing the level of taxes charged to the individuals in an economy. It is an undisputed fact that the primary economic objective at the micro level is to ensure that resources are efficiently allocated and on the macro level the objectives are mainly to ensure high and sustained levels of economic growth; maintaining low levels of inflation and unemployment and, finally, maintaining a stable level of exchange rate regimes. Government expenditure is one of the tools of the fiscal policy which is used to bring the economy to its full employment level or the equilibrium level. The key indicator for growth in the economy is the Gross Domestic Product or more commonly known as GDP. GDP measures the domestic output in the economy, in other words the production of goods and services in the economy. There are have been various debates centred around the fact whether GDP should be considered a good indicator of growth or not; besides the area of measurement, many development economists also argue that the concept of growth does not take into account the human development side of the economy. In fact all GDP/ GNP (Gross National Product) are concerned about is the level of output. Fiscal policy measures were proposed and Keynes’ to bring the economy out of the recessionary phase and help the economy achieve its macroeconomic objectives and stabilise the economy. However, in the 70s with the presence of stagflation, characterised by periods of stagnation and high levels of inflation, was not cured by fiscal policies as a result of which monetarism emerged and gained popularity. The idea behind increasing government expenditure is to stimulate growth in the economy. Growth will only happen when there is sufficient demand for goods and services. Demand would only exist when people have the income to spend on the goods and services. Hence many a times in order to stimulate demand, government tends to increase create demand by engaging in activities which employs the under utilised resources. Recession is the result of negative or low economic growth. When there is a negative or low level of growth then the firms are forced to cut down on production, reducing levels of production then results in redundancies which lead to an increase in unemployment, therefore taking the economy away from its equilibrium level. Therefore, government expenditure increases the spending power of the households, when the income of the household increases they demand more goods and services. Greater demand creates a ripple effect of firms employing labour to meet the increasing level of demand, this leads to an increase in the production of goods and services, which fur ther results in the rise in the economic growth levels. Governments could increase the income by cutting the taxes charged. Prior to developing this point it is important to highlight that the consumption function which is generally the 45Â ° line was suggested by Keynes. The following diagram depicts the consumption function. Thus Keynes identified various factors on which a household’s consumption would depend, namely: Income, whether current level or anticipated level of income Amount of assets held Taxation – if the people anticipated that the taxes would decrease then the current spending would increase. This would also vary with the fact whether the anticipated decrease in taxes is going to be a long-term change or only for a short period. Consumer tastes and preferences – if the goods in the market do not appeal to the household’s preferences then their consumption levels will decline however and the opposite would be true if goods in the market would be as per the requirements of the consumers. In the event that domestic production of goods and services does not meet the requirements of the consumers or the level of income increases up to a certain extent then the households would be more inclined to import goods. In this scenario the balance of payments situation could be in danger. Increase in import levels would mean that the budget deficit would increase therefore driving the domestic production of goods and services down. This would then result in the opposite which is economic growth would fall as import levels increase. Conclusion From the preceding paragraphs it can be concluded that a rise in government expenditure increases the spending power of the households and it therefore results in a rise in the growth levels. It has also been highlighted that the government has to ensure that in the light of increasing the growth levels it does it at the cost of achieving the opposite which is reduced levels of growth. For instance whilst higher levels of income increases consumer spending it also can have the negative effect of an increase in budget deficit thus the domestic economy would suffer. Moreover, the governments in the light of measuring economic growth should not simply stick to GDP as an indicator, primarily because it tends to ignore many other factors like the social costs, externalities like pollution and environmental affects and besides it may even widen the gap between the rich and the poor. The government thus has a major role to play in maintaining the balance between economic growth by increasin g its expenditure levels. Thus in conclusion it can be said an increase in government expenditure stimulates economic growth in the economy by providing a higher level of income to the private households. BIBLIOGRAPHY Gwartney, James D., Stroup, Richard L., and Sobel, Russell S., Economics Private and Public Choice, (2000), Ninth Edition, The Dryden Press. Lumsden, K, Economics, (2003) Pearson Education Taylor, John B., Principles of Economics, (1998), Second Edition, Houghton Mifflin Company Todaro, M.P. and Smith, S.C., Economic Development, Eight Edition, Pearson Addison-Wiley (2003),